Chromosome Function and Mutation

A chromosome is a long, stringy aggregate of genes that carries heredity information and is formed from condensed chromatin. Chromatin is composed of DNA and proteins that are tightly packed together to form  chromatin fibers. Condensed chromatin fibers form chromosomes. Chromosomes are located within the nucleus of our cells. They are paired together (one from the mother and one from the father) and are known as homologous chromosomes. During cell division, chromosomes are replicated and distributed equally among each new daughter cell. Key Takeaways: Chromosomes Chromosomes are composed of DNA and proteins packed tightly to form long chromatin fibers. Chromosomes house genes responsible for the inheritance of traits and guidance of life processes.Chromosome structure consists of a long arm region and a short arm region connected at a central region known as a centromere. The ends of a chromosome are called telomeres.Duplicated or replicated chromosomes have the familiar X-shape and are composed of identical sister chromatids.During cell division, sister chromatids separate and are incorporated into new daughter cells.Chromosomes contain the genetic codes for protein production. Proteins regulate vital cellular processes and provide structural support for cells and tissues.Chromosome mutations result in changes in chromosome structure or changes in cellular chromosome numbers. Mutations most often have harmful consequences. Chromosome Structure A telomere is a region of the DNA sequence at the end of a chromosome. Their function is to protect the ends of the chromosome from degradation. Here they are visible as highlights at the tips of the chromosomes. Credit: Science Picture Co/Subjects/Getty Images A non-duplicated chromosome is single-stranded and consists of a centromere region that connects two arm regions. The short arm region is called the p arm and the long arm region is called the ​q arm. The end region of a chromosome is called a telomere. Telomeres consist of repeating non-coding DNA  sequences that get shorter as a cell divides. Chromosome Duplication Chromosome duplication occurs prior to the division processes of mitosis and meiosis. DNA replication processes allow correct chromosome numbers to be preserved after the original cell divides. A duplicated chromosome is comprised of two identical chromosomes called sister chromatids that are connected at the centromere region. Sister chromatids remain together until the end of the division process where they are separated by spindle fibers and enclosed within separate cells. Once the paired chromatids separate from one another, each is known as a daughter chromosome. Chromosomes and Cell Division Chromosomes are threadlike structures composed of DNA and proteins. During cell division, chromosomes consist of two arms, or chromatids, which are joined by a centromere. Joined chromatids are called sister chromatids. Credit: Adrian T Sumner/The Image Bank/Getty Images One of the most important elements of successful cell division is the correct distribution of chromosomes. In mitosis, this means that chromosomes must be distributed between two daughter cells. In meiosis, chromosomes must be distributed among four daughter cells. The cells spindle apparatus is responsible for moving chromosomes during cell division. This type of cell movement is due to interactions between spindle microtubules and motor proteins, which work together to manipulate and separate chromosomes. It is vitally important that a correct number of chromosomes be preserved in dividing cells. Errors that occur during cell division may result in individuals with unbalanced chromosome numbers. Their cells may have either too many or not enough chromosomes. This type of occurrence is known as aneuploidy and may happen in autosomal chromosomes during mitosis or in sex chromosomes during meiosis. Anomalies in chromosome numbers can result in birth defects, developmental disabilities, and death. Chromosomes and Protein Production DNA is transcribed and translated to produce proteins. Reverse transcription converts RNA to DNA. ttsz/iStock/Getty Images Plus   Protein production is a vital cell process that is dependent upon chromosomes and DNA. Proteins are important molecules that are necessary for almost all cell functions. Chromosomal DNA contains segments called genes that code for proteins. During protein production, the DNA unwinds and its coding segments are transcribed into an RNA transcript. This copy of the DNA message is exported from the nucleus and then translated to form a protein. Ribosomes and another RNA molecule, called transfer RNA, work together to bind to the RNA transcript and convert the coded message into a protein. Chromosome Mutation Genetic Mutation. BlackJack3D/E/Getty Images Chromosome mutations are changes that occur in chromosomes and are typically the result of either errors that happen during meiosis or by exposure to mutagens such as chemicals or radiation. Chromosome breakage and duplications can cause several types of chromosome structural changes that are typically harmful to the individual. These types of mutations result in chromosomes with extra genes, not enough genes, or genes that are in the wrong sequence. Mutations can also produce cells that have abnormal numbers of chromosomes. Abnormal chromosome numbers typically occur as a result of nondisjunction or the failure of homologous chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis.

Clinical Experience And Professional Growth Journal

Clinical Experience and Professional Growth Journal Public health nursing is an important aspect of nursing field, which contributes tremendously to the safety and health of our society. Public health nurses work hard to assure our communities are healthy and are able to attain needed support to be self-sufficient. However, it seems their hard work goes unnoticed by vast majority of our society. This of course, is my opinion, but I would say that if I were to survey various communities, most people would say that â€Å"Nurses just work in the hospital†. I could be very wrong. For the purpose of this journal I would like to discuss the following eight items based on my experience in this class: (a) settings visited, (b) nursing activities, (c) population served, (d) cultural and spiritual issues, (e) quality of life, (f) client education opportunities, (g) education provided by me, and (h) what I have learned and incorporate into my own nursing philosophy with respect to community health. I will conclude this journal by discussing an evidence-based article on the topic of bullying among children and how public health nurses can and should play a significant role in educating and hopefully supporting the society in curtailing this phenomenon among the children. Up to today, in a very short amount of time, I have had the opportunity to be able to visit numerous settings and participate in the activities that are offered by the following organizations: Foothill Unity, Boys andShow MoreRelatedRichard Benner s Theory Of Nurses Developing Skills And Understandin g Of The Patients Care Overtime1022 Words   |  5 Pagesfrom their continued efforts towards trying to achieve strong education and personal experience. The theory explains the five levels of nursing experience: novice, advanced beginner, competent, proficient, and expert. 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Communicable Diseases ( Hiv ) - 971 Words

Over the years, communicable diseases have created a host of serious problems. These diseases cause physical, emotional, and even financial problems in our societies today. Communicable diseases refer to a sickness that passed on through the transmission of infectious illnesses. People, food, animals or water can pass many infections from humans to humans or animals to humans. Humans can pass infectious diseases to each other from touching or exchanging body fluids. In 1981, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) marked the official start of the HIV epidemic which became one of the world’s most deadly communicable diseases (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2015). The widespread of the human immunodeficiency virus has affected approximately 1.2 million people in the United States, and roughly 35 million worldwide is living with HIV (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015). HIV and Efforts to Control It HIV is a virus that develops when a non-infected person exposed by an infected person with HIV through bodily fluids. HIV in an infected person can annihilate the cells; the immune system weakens and becomes a target for other infectious illnesses. When the immune system can no longer defend itself, the infection has progressed to AIDS. People can contract HIV in many ways. HIV can spread by coming in contact with body fluids such as blood, saliva, semen, rectal and vaginal fluids, and breast milk from women who are nursing their babies. Promoting and educatingShow MoreRelatedCommunicable Disease: HIV/AIDS1243 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿Communicable Disease: HIV/AIDS What is a communicable disease? 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A Critical Analysis Of Tensions In Memorial A. H. Essay Example For Students

A Critical Analysis Of Tensions In Memorial A. H. Essay H. A Critical Analysis of Tensions In Memorial A. H. H. During the Victorian Period, long held and comfortable religious beliefsfell under great scrutiny. An early blow to these beliefs came from theUtilitarian, followers of Jeremy Bantam, in the form of a test by reason of manyof the long-standing institutions of England, including the church. When seenthrough the eyes of reason, religion became merely an outmoded superstition(Ford ; Christ 896). If this were not enough for the faithful to contend with,the torch of doubt was soon passed to the scientists. Geologists werepublishing the results of their studies which concluded that the Earth was farolder than the biblical accounts would have it (Ford ; Christ 897). Astronomerswere extending humanitys knowledge of stellar distances, and Natural Historianssuch as Charles Darwin were swiftly building theories of evolution that defiedthe Old Testament version of creation (Ford Christ 897). God seemed to bedissolving before a panicked Englands very eyes, replaced by the vision of acold, mechan istic universe that cared little for our existence. Alfred, Lord Tennyson was painfully aware of the implications of such auniverse, and he struggled with his own doubts about the existence of God. Weglimpse much of his struggles in the poem In Memorial A. H. H., written inmemory of his deceased friend, Arthur Hallam. The poem seemed to be catharticfor Tennyson, for through its writing he not only found an outlet for his griefover Hallams death, but also managed to regain the faith which seemed at timesto have abandoned him. Tennyson regained and firmly reestablished his faiththrough the formation of the idea that God is reconciled with the mechanisticuniverse through a divine plan of evolution, with Hallam as the potential linkto a greater race of humans yet to come. In the first of many lyric units, Tennysons faith in God and Jesusseems strong. He speaks of Believing where we cannot prove (l. 4), and issure that God wilt not leave us in the dust (l. 9). The increasing threatposed to religion by science does not worry Tension here, as he believes thatour increasing knowledge of the universe can be reconciled with faith, saying:Let knowledge grow from more to more, But more of reverence in us dwell; That mind and soul, according well, May make one music as before (1. 25-28). He does anticipate doubt, though, as he asks in advance for Gods forgivenessfor the Confusions of a wasted youth (l. 42). Tennyson here foresees thedifficulties inherent in reconciling God with the cold universe slowly emergingfor the notes of scientists. In order to deal with the tasks set before him, Tennyson must firstboldly face the possibility of a world without God. In stanza number three,Sorrow, personified as a woman, whispers these disconcerting possibilities to agrief-ridden Tennyson, saying, And all the phantom, Nature, stands- / Ahollow form with empty hands (3.9, 12). He questions whether he should embrace or crush Sorrow with all her uncomfortable suggestions. Tennyson goes on to face an even worse possibility than a lonelyuniverse, that being the possibility of an existence without meaning. In thisview, human life is not eternal, and everything returns to dust forever. God islike some wild poet, when he works / Without a conscience or an aim (34.7-8). Why even consider such a God, Tennyson asks, and why not end life all the soonerif this vision of God is true (34.9-12)? He answers himself in the next poem,however, as he banishes such a possibility on the evidence that love could neverexist in such a reality. What we consider to be love would actually be only bea two-dimensional sense of fellowship, such as animals must feel, out ofboredom or crude sensuality (35.21-24)The many poems which follow fluctuate between faith and doubt. Inpoem fifty-four Tennyson consoles himself with the thought:That nothing walks with aimless feet; That not one life shall be destroyed, Or cast as rubbish to the void, When God hat made the pile complete (54.5-9). .u01cb9809a1b258b0fe8ef9c63b15fbe5 , .u01cb9809a1b258b0fe8ef9c63b15fbe5 .postImageUrl , .u01cb9809a1b258b0fe8ef9c63b15fbe5 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u01cb9809a1b258b0fe8ef9c63b15fbe5 , .u01cb9809a1b258b0fe8ef9c63b15fbe5:hover , .u01cb9809a1b258b0fe8ef9c63b15fbe5:visited , .u01cb9809a1b258b0fe8ef9c63b15fbe5:active { border:0!important; } .u01cb9809a1b258b0fe8ef9c63b15fbe5 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u01cb9809a1b258b0fe8ef9c63b15fbe5 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u01cb9809a1b258b0fe8ef9c63b15fbe5:active , .u01cb9809a1b258b0fe8ef9c63b15fbe5:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u01cb9809a1b258b0fe8ef9c63b15fbe5 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u01cb9809a1b258b0fe8ef9c63b15fbe5 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u01cb9809a1b258b0fe8ef9c63b15fbe5 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u01cb9809a1b258b0fe8ef9c63b15fbe5 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u01cb9809a1b258b0fe8ef9c63b15fbe5:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u01cb9809a1b258b0fe8ef9c63b15fbe5 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u01cb9809a1b258b0fe8ef9c63b15fbe5 .u01cb9809a1b258b0fe8ef9c63b15fbe5-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u01cb9809a1b258b0fe8ef9c63b15fbe5:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Auden's Museum of Fine Art EssayLine nine of poem fifty-four definitely assumes a plan for Gods creation,humanity, and an end goal. In the next two poems, however, he returns to thedoubts which a scientific reading of nature inspires, and reminds himself thatthough nature is So careful of the type (55.7), she is yet careless of thesingle life (55.8). This notion of survival of the fittest is extremelydisconcerting to Tennyson. He notices in poem fifty-six the even more alarmingfact that many species have passed into oblivion, and that humans could verywell follow in their footsteps. This is the mechanistic Nature, red in toothand claw, (56.15) whose existence seemed beyond a care of human lives and humanneeds. No longer were men Gods chosen and beloved, but, on the contrary, theyseemed no more noble than the countless scores of other life which had roamedthe planet and passed into extinction. Tennyson writes:O life as futile, then as frail! O for thy voice to soothe and bless! What hope of answer, or redress? Behind the veil, behind the veil (56.25-28). He feels, here, all too well the possibility of our own cosmic insignificance. The one hope that remains for Tennyson lives in the thought thatevolution might actually be Gods divine plan for humanity. If we have, in fact,developed to our present state from a lower form, then who is to say thatdevelopment has ceased? Might we not be evolving ever closer to Gods image anddivinity itself, leaving behind the Satyr-shape (35.22) and ape-like visage ofour ancestors? The fact that we love, as Tennyson mentioned before, separatesus from animals. To support this idea, Tennyson delves into his relationshipwith Arthur Hallam, a figure linking humanitys present condition to thesuperior race yet to come. In poem sixty-four, Tennyson speaks of Hallam,describing him with the words:And moving up from high to higher, Becomes on Fortunes crowning slope The pillar of a peoples hope, The center of a worlds desire (64.13-16). In subsequent sections, he speaks of the divinity present in Hallam, seeming tocompare him at times even to Jesus, as in poem eighty-four, where he writes, Isee thee sitting crowned with good (84.5), and, later, in unit eighty-seven, we saw / The God within him light his face, / And seem to lift the form, andglow / In azure orbits heavenly-wise (87.35-37). Hallam, Tennyson suggests,would have been a link not only between the present race and that which is tocome, but also between a world in turmoil and the God who will restore it topeace. This notion of the division between chaotic nature and an ordereddivinity is metaphorically expressed through images of the spirit leaving thebody (47.6-7), the body, of course, being the physical entity prone to sicknessand weariness, and the spirit as the transcendent aspect which shall someday bereunited with those in Heaven (47.9-16). He speaks of the coming of the thousand years of peace (106.28),presumably when the higher race is realized and all institutions have beenreformed for the common love of good (106.24). It is not yet time, though,for this race to find fruition. He speaks of Hallam as The herald of a higherrace (118.14), suggesting that his friend was merely a glimpse of what is yetto come. Humanity must yet Move upward, working out the beast, And let the apeand tiger die (118.27-28). In other words, a nature now brutal and cold,careless of life, will someday become, High nature amorous of the good(109.10-11). These words suggest a slow process, not to be accomplished in thelife of merely one man, no matter how great he may be. Tennyson seems comfortedby the contemplation of the golden age to come, though, saying, And all is well,though faith and form / Be sundered in the night of fear (127.1-2). Throughhis contemplation, Tennyson seems to have renewed his faith that nature has notbeen abandoned by God , though science would have us believe it so. .u09cb353b001e8f1b372736912a8e2cd0 , .u09cb353b001e8f1b372736912a8e2cd0 .postImageUrl , .u09cb353b001e8f1b372736912a8e2cd0 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u09cb353b001e8f1b372736912a8e2cd0 , .u09cb353b001e8f1b372736912a8e2cd0:hover , .u09cb353b001e8f1b372736912a8e2cd0:visited , .u09cb353b001e8f1b372736912a8e2cd0:active { border:0!important; } .u09cb353b001e8f1b372736912a8e2cd0 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u09cb353b001e8f1b372736912a8e2cd0 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u09cb353b001e8f1b372736912a8e2cd0:active , .u09cb353b001e8f1b372736912a8e2cd0:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u09cb353b001e8f1b372736912a8e2cd0 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u09cb353b001e8f1b372736912a8e2cd0 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u09cb353b001e8f1b372736912a8e2cd0 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u09cb353b001e8f1b372736912a8e2cd0 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u09cb353b001e8f1b372736912a8e2cd0:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u09cb353b001e8f1b372736912a8e2cd0 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u09cb353b001e8f1b372736912a8e2cd0 .u09cb353b001e8f1b372736912a8e2cd0-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u09cb353b001e8f1b372736912a8e2cd0:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Pollution and Human Rights: Our fate is in our ha EssayFinally, after addressing these doubts raised by science, Tennyson turnshis sights to the Utilitarian attack on religion. In poem 124, he explains thatone cannot come to God through reason, but must fell divinity. He writes:I found Him not in world or sun, Or eagles wing, or insects eye, Nor through the questions men may try, The petty cobwebs we have spun (124.4-7). Instead, Tennyson rediscovers his faith through the emotion, saying I have felt(124.16). This statement harkens back to the passages in which Tennyson speaksof love as the convincing factor that we are not alone, for without God, lovewould be an excessive and unnecessary dimension, and thus would have no reasonto exist at all in a mechanistic universe.. His love for Hallam, and the hopethat they will someday meet again, is thus the tie which holds Tennyson to hisfaith. Through Hallam, whom Tennyson says, Oerlookst the tumult for afar(127.19), he knows all is well (127.20). With the epilogue, the private, intellectual wars of In Memoriamconclude peacefully. Tennyson describes the wedding day of his sister andsuggests that the child resulting from the union will be yet a closer link /Betwixt us and the crowning raceNo longer half-akin to brute (127-28, 133). He reminds us yet again that Hallum Appeared ere the times were ripe (139),and thus merely anticipated that far-off divine event, / To which the wholecreation moves (143-44). Works CitedFord, George H. and Carol T. Christ. The Victorian Age. The NortonAnthology of English Literature. Ed. M. H. Abrams. New York: W. W. Norton andCo., 1993. (pps. 891-910). Tennyson, Alfred, Lord. In Memoriam A. H. H.. Ed. M. H. Abrams. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1993. (pps. 1084-1133).